Strategic Analysis Of Wholesale Company Costco Marketing Essay

Key Analysis Of Wholesale Company Costco Marketing Essay This report has played out a short key investigation of the inward assets and outer variables that influence Costco. The report incorporates an outline of the organizations techniques utilizing Porters five power model just as a SWOT investigation of the firm. The report outlines why Costco remains the Anti-Wal-Mart utilizing forceful alarm strategies to accomplish the most reduced potential costs for its clients regardless of whether it implies dropping high brand names. The report incorporates suggestions for the wholesalers, the principle one being to continue with their current effective methodologies so as to keep up the battle for industry authority and further their globalization in to Eastern nations 1.0 Introduction to Costco Costco is a discount money and convey, which works through distribution centers utilizing a participation just assistance. The organization sells great, private mark stock at low costs to organizations purchasing for business use just as people that are individuals from explicit work bunches , for instance NHS or government representatives. The premise of the organization is to accomplish high deal volumes and fast stock turnover, offering a constrained exhibit of product, with a wide item class at low costs (www.costco.co.uk). Also Costco works client administrations running from medical coverage to monetary arranging. The fundamental contender of the organization is Wal-Marts - Sams club inside the US, despite the fact that they have 200 a bigger number of stores working in ten a larger number of states than Costco , Sams club doesn't encounter similar incomes. However there is as yet a steady fight for expanded piece of the overall industry with more up to date participants, for e xample, BJs Wholesale Club (Hughes, 2007). Working universally the organization has divisions in the US, Canada, Mexico, UK, Taiwan, Japan and Korea, Australia and a web webpage operational in the US and Canada. A portion of the stores incorporate drug stores, food courts, opticians, photograph focuses, travel work areas and amplifier focuses inside the distribution centers. The organization likewise works 307 gas stations with a portion of the US and Canada stores. Named as the main organization Wal-Mart fears James Signal (2004) of Costco has caught a type of urban sophisticates, who exchange in the mood for leaving items and exchange down to private marks of increasingly dull items (Duff,2009). 2.0 Costco existing missions/systems Costcos Mission Statement; To persistently furnish our individuals with quality products and ventures at the most reduced potential costs (www.findarticles.com) So as to sell at the most minimal potential costs Costco execute different evaluating techniques through haggling with providers and just including a greatest increase of 14% to every item, even in situations where request is high as CEO Signal expressed you generally give the client the best deal'(Shapiro, 2004). Costco falls into the Overall Price Leadership classification one of Porters four conventional serious techniques (Mitchell, 2001). Value initiative is accomplished by actualizing an effective system utilizing persistent extraordinary endeavors to decrease costs, without barring administrations or items which clients see to be basic. There systems incorporate; ? Low promoting expenses to keep stock cost down, utilizing informal exchange ? High representative wages to hold workers and decrease new staff that would require preparing ? Product stock on beds to lessen work and take into account most extreme deals ? Stock framework identifies things that are coming to sift hold for re request ? In the nick of time way to deal with diminish over stock, purchasing direct from makers and sent straightforwardly to distribution centers inside 24 hours ? Give low costs through volume purchasing ? Ready to change makers to pick up the most ideal cost on an item 3.0 Strategic Management Costco Strategic administration demonstrates a capacity to create and support upper hand, coming about in of increased the value of their image (Ramachandran et al, 2006). Shown by Costcos ascend in overall gain by 1.1% to $266 million and income took off to $71.4 Billion contrasted with Sams club at $46.8 billion and BJs at $10 billion for the principal financial quarter finished Nov 22nd 2009 (Business News, 2009) contrasted with Wal-Mart net deals which expanded by 1.2%. The in the nick of time approach executed by the organization implies items are sold for money before the installment to the providers is expected ,making a high working income. This working preferred position improves Costcos working capital and proficiency, bringing about an enduring worth distinction in the item, contrasted with the contenders and as saw by the clients (Duncan et al, 1988). 4.0 Porters Five Forces The idea of rivalry in an industry depend on five powers including; the danger of new contestants, the dealing intensity of new participants, the bartering intensity of clients, the haggling intensity of providers and the danger of substitute items or administrations (Porter, 1979). These are for the most part contenders that might be pretty much conspicuous or dynamic relying upon the business. A companys consciousness of Porters five powers can permit the association to stake out a situation inside its industry that is less helpless against assault (Bruton, 2008). 4.1 The danger of new contestants medium danger There are numerous expected new contestants into the business, which could act like a danger including, discount clubs, discounters and hypermarkets, for example, Aldi and Netto, which are both constrained range discounters. Other huge existing discount contenders, for example, Wal-Mart could pick up piece of the pie through obtaining giving them new assets. In any case, hindrances to section in to the discount food industry are moderately high, as immense expenses would be associated with mimicking set up circulation systems, brand name and budgetary capital that Costco have set up. Besides it is improbable clients will change to a contender when they have paid a yearlong enrollment expense (Costco detailed 85% of cardholders restored their participation in 2009, www.phx.corporate-ir.net). 4.2 Bargaining intensity of providers low/medium danger The dealing intensity of Costco offers to numerous entrepreneurs, the control over their providers is high, as providers are compelled to slice costs to diminish the danger of them losing their agreement. Costco have a little scope of brands for every item, yet sell high amounts. They could be losing a lot of deals contrasted with Wholesalers like Wal-Mart, whom give clients a bigger measure of decision and subsequently spread their deals between providers. Moreover Costco have demonstrated they are happy to lose even significant brands to improve their influence, edges and lower costs, driving providers to contend among themselves and with the wholesalers less expensive own image items. Featured through Costcos latest choice to quit selling Coca-Cola in a valuing contest because of developing intensity of private marks, by utilizing subtleties got from dedication cards retailers are increasingly mindful of which brands to keep and lose (Neff, 2009). 4.3 Bargaining intensity of clients low danger As per Bruton (2007) the danger is low in light of the fact that there is just a little convergence of discount purchasers, prevalently white collar class buyers, entrepreneurs and families. The last two anyway have a more noteworthy control over the higher and white collar class clients as they would purchase to fulfill needs instead of extravagance things. They are probably going to depend on discovering elective stores, for example, contenders to get what they need at the value they can stand to pay for their normal buys, because of the development and elective accessibility in markdown stores. 4.4 The danger of substitute items low danger The danger of substitutes constrains the benefit capability of the discount business by distinguishing the adequacy of volume of deals at a specific value level. Substitutes incorporate particular stores, for example The Home Depot in America and BQ in the UK going up against the non-food deals through limiting just as hypermarkets. Therefore, the danger of substitutes is low for the discount thought. Be that as it may, there is an expanded danger to specific areas, for example, furniture and gadgets particularly in light of the fact that grocery stores are presently selling a more extensive cluster of items for instance Tescos. A further danger is internet business organizations and destinations, for example, EBay concentrating on the client legitimately (Bruton, 2007). 4.5 Rivalry among contenders medium danger Contention between rivals in the developing discount industry is especially low in light of the fact that the three fundamental contenders focus on various customer gatherings. Moreover value wars are insignificant because of the absence of publicizing with the opponents particularly Costco. Anyway as Costco is picking up quality through globalization, there are various degrees of dangers specifically nations. 5.0 SWOT examination The premise of key administration is the thought that system makes an arrangement between an undertakings interior quality and shortcomings just as its chances and dangers (SWOT) in its outer condition (Andrews, 1987). The accompanying table delineates arrangements factors inside and outside of Costco; 6.0 External elements Concentrating on the outer, more extensive condition in which the organization works it is clear the following stage in the Costco globalization procedure would be development. Because of the furious market in the US and immersion an enormous open door for the organization is enter the Chinese and Eastern European market and as indicated by Baker (2001) Globalization of the business sectors is nearby. Contender Wal-Mart have just entered the quickly developing business sector in China through buying 35% of the perceived hypermarket-Trust-Mart. The collusion benefits Wal-Mart , picking up ability in tasks and coordinations and permit Chinese customers to construct trust with their image name-a significant piece of their way of life. Globalization structures markets where economies of scale lead to decrease of expenses and costs as indicated by Baker (2001). Along these lines,

Abandoned †Creative Writing Free Essays

Private Michael Thompson was at the front, holding his ambush rifle which he had prepared with so a lot, trusting it would help him against what they were battling. They were brought in for revolt control, yet they before long acknowledged it was no conventional uproar. These folks took twenty slugs, and continued coming. We will compose a custom exposition test on Relinquished †Creative Writing or on the other hand any comparable point just for you Request Now Different troopers who were assaulted were going along with them. The main choice left was to hold them in the town, until a strategic atomic strike could be readied. The blockades were before him and he glanced around apprehensively, remembering the essences of the other forty officers around him, They were anxious also. Every one of them. They had recently accompanied one survivor to a clearing vehicle. He was the main survivor that had paid attention to their calls. He was shouting, â€Å"They’re coming! They’re coming!- Just explode the city. You can’t stop them!† That hadn’t helped anyone’s nerves. They had been provided requests to shoot to execute on any objective they considered risky. He could hear the breeze blowing, and a few feathered creatures singing behind him. To top it all off, he could hear the mob, the rearranging of thousands of feet, the shouts that sounded cruel More like moans. Out of nowhere there was quietness. All the fighters strained. They prepared their rifles as one. They had a man set up with poisonous gas to break the group. Everybody raised their rifles. Their leader, started woofing out requests. He heard, and moved to his doled out spot. The rearranging began once more, speedier than previously, and they all realized the mob was going towards them. They paused, tuning in. The group showed up about 33% of a mile not far off. The Sergeant promptly requested the rifle man to start shooting. They contended about starting to shoot at regular folks, yet not for long. They began terminating into the group. The ones they hit didn’t go down. They simply continued coming, similarly as revealed in the instructions. The sergeant began yelling,†Hit them in the head, you nitwits, the head!† The sharpshooters balanced their points, and began dropping individuals in the group. They never shouted, they didn’t even recoil. They simply continued rearranging towards the blockade, quietly. Everybody was a little apprehensive when the things went inside simple terminating range. They opened up in little blasts, cutting down huge numbers of the individuals. There were such a significant number of them. The things were beating on the steel blockade, and coming to through the spaces. Michael simply continued shooting like he was requested to. One to one side, one to one side, he didn’t acknowledge he was crying with dread, until the sergeant pulled him away as the blockade toppled. They started running. The sergeant was shouting for everybody to conform to him, however nobody tuned in. They were keen, they continued running. Twenty men had kicked the bucket at the blockade, and nobody else needed to go along with them. Michael finished the Sergeant a few rear entryways, and out into a vacant road. The sergeant pulled out his versatile radio, and began radioing for reinforcement, overwhelming reinforcement. The main reaction he got was the one that fixed their fate,†Red Wings, you’re all alone on this mission.† Michael glanced around at the bizarre personifications of humankind shutting in from the two sides of the road, and he started running as well. The Sergeant shouted his last shout as he was pulled down and Michael approached, yet he split away from the frightful group, running like he never realized he could. He ran, they were still right behind him, not similar ones, distinct ones. There were such a significant number of them. He dodged down a back street to hurry to the following road, however it was an impasse. No place else to run! He covered up in a receptacle and it was one moment before he heard them encompassing it. They beat on it with such fierceness he dreaded they’d break in, however they didn’t. He sat in the canister and cried, knowing he’d never leave this spot. Sally, his significant other could never at any point learn he was dead. The things had penetrated the outskirts of the city and were spilling out toward each path now. He recollected that regular citizen. He saw now and he planned to god they would nuke the town and encompassing zones. The lives relinquished would be little contrasted with what number of would be lost in the event that they didn’t The receptacle was sliding, however he knew they’d never flip it. He had a lot of slugs left, so he moaned his keep going murmur, hopped on the dumpster and started terminating on them, tears blurring his vision. He cut down more than some other trooper had and when his ammo ran out in his attack rifle, he drew his gun. He discharged 13 shots with it, murdering twelve zombies. It was the end for him and he knew it. He stopped in the road, pondering sally and how he could never observe her again. He didn't shout in torment as the odd things assaulted him, he was a genuine solider to his final gasp. The most effective method to refer to Abandoned †Creative Writing, Papers

Environmental Defense Funds Climate Corps 2014 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Environmental Defense Funds Climate Corps 2014 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog The Energy and Environment program is representing SIPA proudly in the  Environmental Defense Funds Climate Corps 2014  with seven fellows! The selective summer fellows program places top graduate students from around the United States in leadership-focused companies here and abroad. The Climate Corps projects aim to  reduce energy consumption, increase renewable energy production, and help forward-thinking companies prepare themselves for 21st-century business practices and advancement. Felise Man (EE 2015) will be working with CSX freight and rail company to increase energy efficiency practices throughout the company. Eric Schrago (EE 2015) will be working with Adidas to increase corporate and supply chain energy efficiencies. Rebecca Miaomiao Shao (EE 2015) will be working with  Apples Global Energy Team and helping the company achieve its net zero energy consumption goal.  Brandon Tarbert (EE 2015) will be working with Williams-Sonoma to develop and expand their renewable energy portfolio to reduce the carbon footprint associated with Williams-Sonomas energy consumption. Michael Didyk (EE/MBA 2015) will be with Caesars  Entertainment, Sana Ouji (EE 2015) will be with Taylor Morrison,  and Jan Schwarting  (EE 2015)  will be with  Warburg Pincus. Environmental Defense Funds Climate Corps 2014 Post submitted by Brandon Tarbert, MPA 2015

Graduation Speech English Class - 888 Words

English class seemed to be the most dreadful to take within school. Writing essays for most of my grade in a class is not what I was looking forward too. When I entered college I knew that it would be one of many challenging classes I would have to take. Starting from the lowest English class to moving on up, the writing assignments became longer and more thought out. The time came when I got into this class that I knew more work was going to have to be put into essays and thus brought out what I had not seen before in my work progress. At the beginning of this class I was nervous on how this semester will go and whether or not I will succeed to my fullest potential in English. With that in my mind I still was trying my best to work at getting better, despite how much it made me cringe at the thought of it. My perspective of writing began to change as time went on, the assignments were based on interesting topics which made it a bit bearable for me. I’ve learned that you have to make the steps to get to the perfect paper. A paper requires you to brainstorm, make an outline, and writing your rough draft to get that feedback you need before finishing up that final draft. During this class I have also learned where to put my thesis and that I don’t need to have that three point subtopics of what you should talk about. The writing length started getting longer and I was a bit skeptical on how I can get to the word count or what will I talk about within my papers, but I haveShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis Of Maya Angelou s I Know Why The Caged Bird Sings 1036 Words   |  5 PagesFily Thiam English 002 Mrs. Vilato 9 April 2015 Rhetorical Analysis on â€Å"Graduation† by Maya Angelou In Graduation, a chapter in her autobiography â€Å"I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings†, Maya Angelou talks vividly about her middle school graduation in the segregated South. 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Essay about In Great Expectations, Is Miss Havisham crazy...

In Great Expectations, Is Miss Havisham crazy and/or evil? The mad,eccentric and incredibly peculiar Miss Havisham,a wealthy dowager who lives in an old, rotting mansion secluded from the outside world is certainly one of the most memorable creations in the book Great Expectations written by Charles Dickens. From the first introductory scene on encountering Miss Havisham’s character it is immediately clear that she is supposed to leave a lasting impression on the reader. Dickens uses a vast variety of imagery and word choice to describe the appearance of the house in which Miss Havisham lives . Satis house,as it was called, emits an ominous presence with its old brick walled up windows and many iron bars.This gives the†¦show more content†¦Ever since her rejection by fiancà ©e Compeyson, Miss Havisham-in her own world-has effectively stopped time and all that goes with it. Then, with a manic obsessive cruelty Miss Havisham adopts a young girl whom she names Estella and raises her as a weapon to wreak revenge on the all members of opposite sex.She inflicts her own sourness and pain on to Estella and successfully turns her into the cold hearted yet alluring creature which Miss Havisham had so fervently sought her to become,dressing her in diamonds and jewels to draw men into the trap. Resulting in Pip yearning after the love he so longingly wants yet cannot have from Estella. Her malevolent approach towards all men is portrayed throughout the book yet Miss Havisham cannot see that her actions are hurtful towards Pip and Estella.In one example it is possible to distinguish her bitter fixation reaching a climax between Pip and herself, â€Å" Love her,love her,love her. If she tears your heart to pieces love her and as it gets older and stronger it will tear deeper-love her, love her, love her!† The plea in her voice is a clear indication of the sheer desperation that Miss Havisham feels she must enforce upon Estella. However, the more Pip loves her, the more Estella seems to enjoy torturing and manipulating him-he is almost like an equivalent of a toy mannequin for her. However, eventually Miss Havisham isShow MoreRelatedGreat Expectations- Character Analysis Essay10289 Words   |  42 PagesEstella Havisham: Most readers are appalled at the cold-hearted and cruel ways of Estella, but any criticism directed at her is largely undeserved. She was simply raised in a controlled environment where she was, in essence, brainwashed by Miss Havisham. Nonetheless, her demeanor might lead one to suspect that she was a girl with a heart of ice. Estella is scornful from the moment she is introduced, when she remarks on Pips coarse hands and thick boots. However, her beauty soon captivates PipRead MoreEssay about Analysis of Chapters 1 through 8 of Great Expectations6805 Words   |  28 PagesAnalysis of Chapters 1 through 8 of Great Expectations Plot and Setting- The plot starts out with a little boy name Phillip Pirrip. It is a first person narrative about a boy back in the nineteenth century. The first eight chapters deal mostly with Pip’s childhood years. It also deals with who Pip is, and his family. In the beginning of the story Pip introduces himself, and introduces his dead parents. He is in the graveyard, and then a scary looking man comes up. The man threatens himRead MoreCharacter Analysis Of Great Expectations1475 Words   |  6 Pages Great Expectations written by Charles Dickens was about the path of life for one fellow, his name was Pip. Pip grew up in a small rural village but soon his life would pull him into the busy streets of London. Dickens would use this young child with a rocky family background to share hardships, love, sadness, and realization in order to add familiarity to his readers, making him a relatable character. Dickens wrote this book to be able to give insight into the social reforms that were slowly startingRead More The Life of Charles Dickens Reflected in Great Expectations Essay example2661 Words   |  11 PagesThe Life of Charles Dickens Reflected in Great Expectations      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I must entreat you to pause for an instant, and go back to what you know of my childish days, and to ask yourself whether it is natural that something of the character formed in me then - Charles Dickens    Charles Dickens is well known for his distinctive writing style. Few authors before or since are as adept at bringing a character to life for the reader as he was. His novels are populated with characters who

Information Systems Case Study Free Essays

string(156) " He reported that managers, while 40 percent of their time was devoted to gaining and sharing information, usually used informal systems centred on people\." Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies J. G. Thoburn Coventry University, UK S. We will write a custom essay sample on Information Systems Case Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now Arunachalam Coventry University, UK A. Gunasekaran University of Massachusetts, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts, USA Keywords Information systems, Agile production, Small-to-medium-sized enterprises Introduction Today, manufacturing organisations are increasingly required to be highly optimised. Abstract The ability to respond swiftly and effectively The necessity of maintaining optito produce new products and services has mal operations and becoming an agile and responsive enterprise is become not so much a method of gaining competitive advantage, but more a means of becoming increasingly important to survive in the global market. survival. Many companies have seen the need Consequently, all resources in the to adopt a whole range of practices that reduce companies need to be effectively inputs and waste, and allow greater responmarshalled. Traditionally SMEs siveness to customer needs and the markethave concentrated on the 4Ms  ± money, materials, machine and place. In reaction to changing requirements manpower but have often neand conditions, manufacturing paradigms glected the effective management continue to be defined. It is possible to identify of information, which many authors suggest is at the heart of two trends: those addressing predominantly any agile organisation. The effect the relationships required in local and global is inadequate or fragmented infor- trading environments such as that described mation systems (IS) that do not by Porter (1996) and those systems focusing on address the demands of operational or the wider strategic needs organisational structures within an enterof the company. The study reprise such as business process re-engineering ported here examines the diversi(Hammer and Champy, 1993). Arguably, the ties of problems that occur in agile manufacturing paradigm combines both. three different companies and, Changes in information technology and compares their systems to the communications in the last two decades have ideals of agile manufacturing. further shifted the balance towards the customer. There has been a huge growth in the number of computers in use, putting huge power on the desktop, at ever-decreasing hardware cost. The arrival of the Internet and the expansion of the free market in telecommunications present the option of simple and low cost communication. Now it has become easy for all players in the supply chain, or even individual consumers, to measure specification, price and supply performance against their needs. They can purchase goods that precisely meet their requirements from anywhere in the world, bypassing any perceived shortcomings of their local marketplace. In response to the need for agility or the requirements to link different parts of the International Journal of Agile organisation or elements of a supply chain Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 effectively, systems are emerging that may # MCB University Press fundamentally change the organisation of [ISSN 1465-4652] manufacturing. In order that they might [ 116 ] achieve this, companies must clearly understand and organise their information resources at the earliest possible stage in their development. It is clear that only those enterprises that are able to respond to market demands with minimum delay will survive. Kidd (1996) argues: The agility that arises can be used for competitive advantage, by being able to respond rapidly to changes occurring in the market environment and through the ability to use and exploit a fundamental resource, knowledge. People need to be brought together, in dynamic teams formed around clearly defined market opportunities, so that it becomes possible to level one another’s knowledge. Through this process is sought the transformation of knowledge into new products and services. High reaction flexibility will be no more than a qualifier in the future, just as high quality is today. This flexibility cannot be realised by high-tech equipment alone. Human creativity and organisational ability, if necessary supported by advanced computer based tools, will be the basis for survival and success strategies. This paper describes studies over a period of 15 months, of three companies, and analyses how far they are away from possessing the ability to become agile, by examining the areas that were dysfunctional. It explores the importance of information management and appraises information systems in place in these companies. It discusses the need for a more structured and holistic approach to transferring information in its various forms to the different areas of an organisation, aiming to give optimal access to information while eliminating wasteful duplication as well as generating and testing new knowledge about the firm’s changing requirements. Information defined The term information is widely and often inaccurately used. Many authors agree that J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 there are three elemental types: data, information and knowledge. However, this paper argues that there is a fourth, intelligence, which is distinct from the others. All but data require an understanding of the socially defined context  ± where the information, knowledge and intelligence came from, the assumptions surrounding them, and their importance and limitations. Each of them may be defined as follows: . Data: a series of observations, measurements or facts. . Information: information is data organised into meaningful patterns by means of the application of knowledge. The act of organising data into information can itself generate knowledge, when a person reads, understands, interprets and applies the information in a specific work situation. . Knowledge: the intellectual capital resident within an organisation. The facts, experiences or competencies known by a person or group of people, or held within an organisation, gained by individual or shared experiences, training or education. Intelligence: what a company needs to know about its competitive, economic, technical and industry environment to enable it to anticipate change and formulate strategies to best provide for the needs of the marketplace and its specific customers. Yet many aspects of a company’s IS are based, not around formal or technology based solutions, but rather on informal or human oriented systems. Mintzbe rg (1997) examined a wide range of managerial work, predominantly in large organisations. He reported that managers, while 40 percent of their time was devoted to gaining and sharing information, usually used informal systems centred on people. You read "Information Systems Case Study" in category "Free Case study samples" Nevertheless, he concluded that: the job of managing is fundamentally one of processing information. that managing a company was essentially a matter of control. However, this implies a rigidity of framework and formality that does not fit well with today’s organisation, and certainly does not promote agility. Flatter, less hierarchical business systems localise control and make it difficult for management to achieve enterprise-wide regulation. Smith (1984) however, believed that the vitality of living systems was not a matter of control, but rather of dynamic connectedness. Veryard (1994) argues that: systems are a dynamic interplay between adaptation and non-adaptation. This is precisely what is required in agile organisations, where there remains the need for stability and accountability, in an environment of necessary and perhaps rapid change. Dynamic connectedness in an agile organisation is provided by the flows of formal and informal information. Veryard further suggests that: the future belongs to symbiosis  ± external integration in pursuit of common business aims. The authors’ research and experience shows that informal systems are equally important in every part of the organisation. This appears to be especially true in smaller organisations, where they have less developed formal systems, or formal systems are not performing optimally. In order to better understand and integrate the IS, the vital role of informal systems must be taken into account. The need for information systems in SMEs to successfully communicate and control For the better part of this century, classical management writers such as Henri Fayol (1949) and Gulick and Urwick (1937) taught This is evidenced in those extended enterprises now reported to be emerging. If this biological view is pursued, it can be seen that biological organisms, especially human ones, achieve precisely the continuous adaptation that is described in the agile paradigm. The most successful individuals are able to blend information from their external environment, with knowledge of their own capabilities, using formal and informal systems, whilst retaining information and knowledge in memory. There is constant building and retention of knowledge, with competencies taught by example as well as by the formal methods to be found in education and training. Concurrently, many of the control and co-ordination systems, even those learned, become largely autonomic, permitting more effective processing of environmental and circumstantial changes. Such systems may be clearly observed at work in individuals when they are, for example, driving a vehicle. Failure to function effectively in those circumstances leads to severe consequences. Also, by combining with other individuals, capabilities may be extended to be far more than the sum of the parts. Accordingly, biological systems may provide useful models for what may be expected to occur in manufacturing organisations of the future. With biological organisms, the need for adaptive ISs is most profound in growth and early learning stages, or in times of a significantly changing environment. Failure to adapt and learn from conditions [ 117 ] J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 ay lead to survival difficulties. Similarly, small or growing companies, or those adapting to rapidly changing market conditions will require a dynamically linked IS that binds together all parts of the enterprise, and allows it to adapt to its external environment. This may be very different to the rather rigid systems of the past, operating on pre-defined rules and algorithms. Yet it must be within the reach of the smalles t company functioning at low resource levels, which may well preclude expensive and complex IT based systems. Information management differences between large companies and SMEs The EC and the UK Government’s Department of Trade and Industry have identified SMEs as critical to future economic growth and job creation within the European Union. They form large and important sectors in most industrialised countries, especially in Europe and the USA. Yet significant differences exist between the management of SMEs and larger companies, where much of the research in this field is concentrated. Just as a small fishing boat and a passenger liner may share the same ocean, so SMEs share the global trading environment with large organisations, and are no less susceptible to environmental effects. Indeed it may be argued that just like the smaller vessel, they are much less able to ride out the storms of uncertainty and rapid change, because of their lower resource base. As a result, they must be more, not less vigilant and adaptive than their larger counterparts, with intelligence systems able to influence their strategy and knowledge base much quicker. The Society of Practitioners of Insolvency in the UK concluded (SPI, 1998) from their 1998 survey that many companies, mostly SMEs, fail from lack of information  ± with loss of market being the single most important factor. Case studies Research took place in three companies over a period of three months with Company A, and more than six months each for Companies B and C, when one of the authors was in daily attendance. The companies were self-selected for study. Full access was allowed to every part of the business, its operations, management and financial systems, and to all employees. Research took the form of observation, participatory ethnographic and action research. Questioning of employees used unstructured or semi-structured interviews. [ 118 ] Company A was part of a large international group, operating in a number of countries and in every major geographical area in the world, with a group turnover at the time of the study around ? 1 billion. The group consisted in total of eleven divisions each producing a different product. The division studied was located in France, and had approximately 200 employees. The company has been established a number of years and operates under an ISO 002 based system, as well as a number of other quality assurance regimes. The organisation manufactured a variety of special, large-scale products for the oil field, nuclear and defences industries worldwide. These complex products were produced individually to specific customer requirements. Lead times on nuclear products ranged from one to two years, and for the others, from si x to 12 months. The products were manufactured as individual one-off specials, in a job-shop operation. The company was divided into seven departments, three by product sector, and the remainder by function. One of the latter was the information technology department. Unlike other departments, although it had a functioning office in the French division it was not a part of the local company; IT was attached directly to the parent company in Germany. Its responsibilities encompassed the development and operation of the main computer and software systems used on the site for production management, purchasing, sales, production costing, and time and attendance systems. The department had additional responsibilities for networks and PCs which variously ran under MsDOS, Windows and Macintosh formats. Where information transfer took place between departments, it was almost entirely carried out manually, transferring information to paper, and then manually transferring it to the next system. No section used the same nomenclature or data dictionary for parts and components. The organisational design was partly hierarchical and partly a matrix structure, and used a predominantly formal communications network. There were a substantial number of formal and informal meetings, through which much of the departmental and inter-departmental co-ordination was attempted. All formal systems describing the company’s operation and administration were well documented. Each department, though relatively autonomous, seemed to be run with apparent efficiency. The operations and production management elements were especially highly developed, Company A J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 and had been subjected to repeated internal scrutiny as well as by local universities. Despite this, the company experienced considerable difficulties in meeting quoted leadtimes. Those lead-times were already longer than their major competitors, and the company was also losing price-competitiveness. As much as 50 percent over-run on lead times was common, and substantial underachievement of possible turnover, and erosion of market share resulted. Otherwise the company and its products enjoyed a long-standing high reputation, though the managers believed that without this, considerably greater erosion of market would have occurred. Their major competitors, predominantly Japanese and American, through price, technical improvements, and a significantly better responsiveness and delivery performance, were nevertheless making increasing gains at the company’s expense. The company was a self-contained profit centre, a division of a larger group that trades throughout the UK. There were approximately 25 employees on the site, though there were wide fluctuations in the total due to a self-imposed seasonality in turnover. Certain support services such as accounting and human resources management were provided from the central holding company. Otherwise the company was responsible for all aspects of its operations. The company was engaged in metal finishing to the engineering industry and as a first tier supplier to several Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs). It had two production lines and operated under an ISO 9002 system. The formal IS of the company revolved around the sales order processing (SOP) system operated from group headquarters and accessed remotely over a fixed link. SOP formed part of a non-standard accounting system, originally written for another group company operating in a non-manufacturing sector. The system itself was user unfriendly and slow, and no intuitive use was possible. At the start of the study only one person, the production supervisor, had any training in SOP. However, that training gave even him only limited knowledge of the system. Cryptic codes and generic descriptions entered by him into SOP made it impossible for others to distinguish between one product and another, and the division could not operate in his absence. Product and process knowledge was almost wholly vested in the production supervisor’s head. There was no formal planning or production scheduling system, and no collection system for information concerning production times and material usage. Inter- Company B nal and external rejects were not generally noted or analysed. The company had three stand-alone personal computers, two of them extremely outdated. The central management-accountant exercised the most stringent control, and the company was expected to make bottom-line operating profits each month. The whole operational objectives became focused only upon this, and ignored other fundamentals. To reduce costs, â€Å"non-essential† spending such as machine maintenance, health and safety, training, housekeeping and sales were ruthlessly cut. Those â€Å"savings† often represented all of the profits made by the division. The lack of an IS significantly increased the time spent preparing reports, reduced their accuracy and eroded local management time. At the start of the study, new management was installed in the company. Several initiatives aimed at improving operating performance were considered. The absence of any suitable or appropriate IS soon emerged. In some cases, lack of coherent historical information prevented the justification of proposed initiatives, while the effectiveness of others could not be judged within the imposed monthly timescale. Machine and process measurement systems were designed and put into place. They quickly showed that processes were incapable. Similarly, measures of rejects and returns showed that external rejects were in excess of 30 percent while internal rejects were almost 60 percent. An analysis indicated the causes of the problems, and allowed them to be addressed. Reject rates fell to less than 1 percent within a few weeks. However the centre continued to rigorously apply the accountant’s previous control measures. A monthly operating profit remained a continuous and absolute requirement even though large backlogs of rejects, and uncoated, badly corroded customer parts required processing, and machines needed to be brought to reliable operating condition. Consequently, employee training was vetoed, and workforce stabilisation measures overturned. In a climate previously dominated by dismissals and redundancy, the workforce actively delayed the implementation of an IS. After some time, substantial employee involvement began to overcome this barrier, and they became enthusiastic participants in data collection and process improvement. Customer confidence began to return and the customer base marginally improved. However, the new IS also begun to uncover previous managerial shortcomings, especially at group level. In response, draconian short-term financial measures were applied [ 119 ] J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 rom the centre, and initiatives overruled. The workforce was further reduced, and training programmes cancelled. Workforce morale and customer confidence fell sharply. The division has now closed. Company C was a private limited company, whose directors were its owner-managers. There were approximately 60 employees, with recruitment rising because of rapid growth and expansion. The company was in its third year of trading. The company operated under a newly introduced ISO 9002 based system. The company had two product lines. The first produced simple, low volume components for the automotive sector. The second built components for the machine tool industry. The operations involved in both of these activities were largely manual. The second group of products were much more complex  ± many containing more than one thousand sub-components. A number of variants of each were produced, and all work was carried out by hand. Much of the information within the company was held on personal computers. The internal system was networked into three sections; operations management (OM), purchasing and administration. OM includes quality assurance and control (QA), and a computer aided design (CAD) station. Each section was independent of the others. Employees were inadequately trained in the use of software and frequent problems arose through their lack of understanding of the packages in use. There was considerable duplication of data entry, with employees in each of the sections entering and extracting information in an unstructured manner. Where information transfer took place between sections, it was almost entirely carried out manually, transferring information to paper, and then manually transferring it to the next system. No section used the same nomenclature or data dictionary for parts and components. Manufacturers’ references and descriptions were entered in a casual and unstructured way, making cross-referencing impossible. The data structure of each system was entirely different, and there were further large differences even within systems. CAD and QA were not integrated into the OM system. Consequently, internal systems were largely unsynchronised. As they grew in size, so the problems that they created were progressively magnified. Build and wiring order was an important factor, particularly in the case of control cabinets. It could significantly affect productivity, quality and finished appearance. Company C Consequently, the order and format of cutting and build lists were central to production aims. Despite this, methods of list production failed to recognise this. It was difficult to derive build-order from examination of design information alone. Product variants caused additional difficulties and required translation by unskilled production operatives. As a result, operatives frequently transferred build instructions onto handwritten sheets and maintained unofficial work instruction systems. There was no formal method of transferring or retaining their build-order knowledge. Comparative attributes, and a summary of the most significant problems arising from the collection and use of information, knowledge and data for each of the three companies are shown in Table I. Identified success factors/ dysfunctional areas In order to more accurately compare and analyse the areas of dysfunction in each of the companies it is necessary to use an objective measure. Bailey and Pearson (1983) have produced one of the most definitive and widely used lists of factors that identify the success factors in ISs. Li (1997) added a further seven factors. These 46 elements have been used to form a matrix, shown in Table II, against which the ISs of the case study companies can be compared. However we have made minor modifications to some of the original criteria to widen references from a computer based information system (CBIS) to simply information system (IS). A hash (#) is shown in the description in these cases. A seven-point scale has been used to describe the degree of success or dysfunction of the IS when first observed. The scale used is as follows: 0 Not applicable 1 Significantly unsuccessful or dysfunctional 2 Moderately unsuccessful or dysfunctional 3 Broadly neutral  ± neither successful nor unsuccessful 4 Moderately successful 5 Significantly successful X No information available. Discussion and analysis The companies studied were self-selected, with the only common factor being that they were experiencing operational difficulties which extended to their trading environment in one form or another. There was nothing to suggest that they were other than typical of [ 120 ] J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 Table I Company attributes Company B UK Manufacturing General engineering Throughout UK Yes Yes 25 Very high Low ? 170k ? 40 million Low Hierarchical High Very low Central Mixed, central file server, local PCs High Low Very low Yes No Very low Manual Management accountant Very high Yes Medium High Very Low Yes Yes Low Directors High Yes Company C UK Manufacturing Automotive/machine tools English Midlands No N/A 60 Fairly high Low ? 1. 8 million ? 1. million Both high and low Team based Low Medium Local owner/directors Local PCs Characteristic Company A Country of operation Type of company Sales sector Sales area Part of a group High degree of central control Approximate number of employees on site Employee turnover rate General level of employee skills Approximate site sales turnover Approximate group sales turnover Product complexity Organisational structure Organisational formality Degree of manufacturing sophi stication Origin of principal control Type of information system Degree of manual systems Degree of computerisation Degree of IS training Islands of information Local networking Degree of IS integration Transfer between systems Provider of IT support Informal information systems External audit systems (e. g. ISO 9002) France Manufacturing Nuclear engineering/oil and gas production Worldwide Yes No 180 Low Very high ? 12 million ? 900 million High Hierarchical/matrix High Very high Local Mixed, central mainframe (financial), local mainframe and PCs Low High Medium Yes Some Low Manual IT department Medium Yes 121 ] (continued) J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 [ 122 ] Table I Company B . . . . . . . Characteristic Company A Company C Principal symptoms . . . . . . . Poor lead time performance Higher prices than competitors Loss of market share Serious loss of availa ble turnover through lower throughput times . . Poor quality performance Poor lead time performance Extremely small customer base offering low value work Low profitability High degree of seasonality Poor quality performance Poor lead time performance Poor cash flow Frequent stoppages due to material shortages High degree of duplication and wasted effort Principal causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Failures in communication in verbal systems  ± formal and informal Need to manually transfer data between separate IT systems leading to delays and inaccuracy Poor communication with suppliers and failure to keep adequate ata on vendor performance Lack of unified IT and IS strategy . . . . . . . . Lack of any formal operations management and scheduling system Failure to keep manufacturing performance records Control using inappropriate measurements Failure to monitor customers’ records and address reasons for erosion of customer base Failure to understand market conditions Failure to understand employment market Self-impos ed seasonality High staff turnover and absenteeim Constant loss of skills and competencies Lack of skills sharing Poor training Inappropriate SOP system Information systems unable to cope with rates of growth Unstructured data gathering Inappropriate transfer of information to factory floor leading to proliferation of informal systems Failure to feed back information and knowledge from production Failure to understand employment market Limited knowledge base and deliberate limiting of skills base Lack of understanding of quality failures Lack of appropriate IT training Inappropriate IT systems Ad-hoc IT systems leading to Lack of unified IT and IS strategy J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 Table II Success factors and dysfunctional areas Factor no. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Description factor Top management involvement Competition between computer based information system (CBIS) and non-CBIS units Allocation priorities for IS resources (#) Chargeback method of payment for services Relationship between users and the CBIS staff Communications between users and the CBIS staff Technical competence of the CBIS staff Attitude of the CBIS staff Scheduling of CBIS products and services Time required for systems development Processing of requests for system changes Vendor’s maintenance support Response/turnaround time Means of input/output with CBIS centr e Convenience of access Accuracy of output Timeliness of output Precision of output Reliability of output Currency of output Completeness of output Format of output Features of computer language used Volume of output Realisation of user requirements Correction of errors Security of data and models Documentation of systems and procedures User’s expectation of computer-based support User’s understanding of the systems Perceived utility (worth vs. ost) User’s confidence in the systems User’s participation Personal control over the IS (#) Training provided to users Job effects of computer-based support Organisational position of the IS unit (#) Flexibility of the systems Integration of the systems User’s attitude toward the IS (#) Clarity of output Instructiveness of output Support of productivity tools Productivity improved by the IS (#) Efficiency of the systems Effectiveness of the systems A 3 2 3 X 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 X 4 4 4 3 2 3 3 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 Company B 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 C 2 3 2 0 4 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 4 2 3 3 4 4 1 2 5 4 2 4 3 3 2 2 2 2 companies of their size or sector. The studies aimed to determine the extent of use of ISs, report effectiveness and what contribution, if any, their systems had to the areas of dysfunction. They were intended to be preliminary studies from which initial conclusions could be drawn, with reference to published work. By spending a considerable amount of time in each company, and becoming involved with various aspects of their operations, and interacting with employees at all levels in each company, there is a high level of confidence that the systems observed were unaffected by short term experimental bias. Company A, with the highest turnover and backed by a large multi-national parent company was the most resource rich [ 123 ] J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 company. It possessed a highly sophisticated and well-designed production and operations management system, backed by logistics, quality and design departments each equally efficient in their own right. The IS appears from Table II to perform reasonably well. Yet consistently it was unable to meet promised lead times, often by a substantial margin. It was found that the purchasing department was at the centre of many of the problems, with poor communication with suppliers, and adversarial purchasing based principally on price. The consequence was many late deliveries and variable quality. Yet the true cause of the problems was not discovered to be there. The principal means of information transfer between different sections of the company’s IT system was manual. Because of incompatible systems, even at PC level, where both Apple and MsDOS based systems were employed, communication was impossible. Each department’s system had grown on an ad hoc basis to fulfil its own needs, without reference to others. Each data transfer took place using printed information, usually in the form of schedules, which was translated, then re-entered manually. There were often delays, some considerable, while this process took place. Subtle yet cumulative changes of data and information took place because of translation errors. This had the effect of de-synchronising the whole system. But the most significant effects on leadtime were not to be found in the IT system, but rather in verbal communication systems. A large number of formal and informal meetings were held to exchange information often in response to increasing delays against the planned schedule. In response to pressure, the spokespersons from individual departments often gave incorrect answers, sometimes inadvertently because of the cumulative errors or delays in information transfer. Other times, errors were deliberate, where attempts were apparently made to save face, or under pressure from a senior manager or colleagues, to agree to plans that they knew to be unrealistic. Different participants often repeated this process in turn during a meeting. Accordingly, this information was recorded and became crystallised into the formal system with the result that delays were progressively magnified. Thus it was lack of true dynamic connectedness of the system that created the problems that led to continual poor lead-time performance. In contrast, the IS in Company B was not only seriously deficient and absent in many places, but was dysfunctional in every area where it did exist. IT systems were limited, unfriendly and uncoordinated, with training and documentation absent. In the wider system information, and particularly feedback, was deliberately withheld, and knowledge generation stifled in response to the corporate culture. The annual haemorrhage of accumulated skills combined with the lack of training and poor human resources policies substantially added to the problem. Inappropriate measurement and control of the feedback systems that did exist reinforced this culture, and the problems that were occurring. Because of poor management techniques, both internal and external intelligence was ignored for considerable periods of time. At the times attention was placed upon this aspect, the system was incapable of multiple focus, and one set of problems was replaced with another. The response of senior group managers was particularly interesting. As IS was put in place or repaired, long-accumulated problems began to emerge which pointed to previous management failures. Their immediate response was to try to dismantle newly implanted systems, and halt knowledge generation and dissemination, and return to the previous culture. Once they took these steps, failure was inevitable. In Company C, the problems were quite different. There was a clear belief in the ability of computers to solve problems by their mere presence. Yet the growth and structure in their IS was wholly unplanned and uncoordinated, and was incapable of supporting the rapid growth of the organisation. There was substantial redundancy and duplication of software systems, and poor understanding of their capabilities that led to the disablement of important reporting and control facilities. Poor system management and training allowed proliferation of duplicated files, and it was often difficult to determine the correct version of any instruction. As a consequence, a considerably higher level of employee time was expended than necessary, substantially increasing costs. Poor data gathering, knowledge management and information generation techniques exacerbated these problems, and informal systems proliferated. Yet simple trial measures to return acquired manufacturing process and merge formal and informal systems, improved quality, productivity and worker-satisfaction. Information systems in an agile company should contribute to responsiveness as well as to overall corporate and organisational aims (Burgess, 1994; Goldman and Nagel, 1993; Kidd, 1994). There are a number of broadly accepted principles of the agilemanufacturing paradigm that provide the [ 124 ] J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 basis for a rapid and flexible response to changing trading conditions. That is to say there is emphasis on strategies (Goldman et al. , 1995), technologies, systems (Cho et al. , 1996; Gillenwater et al. , 1995) and people (Goldman et al. , 1995; Kidd, 1994). In many cases, many authors have placed great emphasis on the technological capabilities of the organisation (Adamides, 1996; Medhat and Rook, 1997; Merat et al. , 1997). Such resources may not be available to smaller companies. Does this necessarily mean that small companies may not be agile. This would be directly contradictory to the long held view that the strength of smaller companies is their inherent flexibility and responsiveness. Nevertheless, from the comparisons shown in Table III it is possible to conclude from this study that the more dysfunctional, and less dynamically connected the IS, the less able the company is to achieve agile outcomes, flexibility and responsiveness, in the broadest sense of its definition (Gehani, 1995; Kidd, 1996). Conclusion and implications In this section consideration is given to three broad issues arising from the case studies: potential implications of the results; preliminary conclusions; and plans for further work. The studies found broadly in line with previous work, though we have suggested that the normal three-part definition of information of data, information and knowledge be extended to include a fourth, intelligence. We have further observed the fundamental importance of informal systems particularly in the case of the two smaller companies B and C. Here personnel at every operational level relied heavily on informal information, and constructed their own systems, either to protect their position, or to operate more effectively. We have also propounded the biological view that human behavioural systems in particular provide a useful view of how responsive organisations should behave if flexibility and responsiveness is the desired outcome. This paper then considered the companies against the background of agile manufacturing and compared their actual performance to the ideals of the paradigm. It can be concluded that in every case in this study, the more dysfunctional and less dynamically connected the IS, the less able the company is to be agile in the broadest sense of its definition. However current tools and techniques of evaluation and design of ISs are far less well Table III Comparative performance against agility principles Company A Strategy Agile principles Technology Systems Lack of direct integration of IT systems and connectedness of IT and people-centred systems Absent, deficient or dysfunctional. Without effective coordination or integration People Flexibility Outcomes Responsiveness Low Good strategic Good to awareness excellent Low People highly trained, valued and rewarded but failure in communications in people-centred systems People poorly valued and rewarded. No training and deliberate withholding of knowledge in response to company culture Poor B Poor strategic Badly provided, maintained and awareness  ± understood with lack of internal and external intelligence Poor C Strategy held in individuals at board level Limited, uncoordinated and unplanned. Computers seen as an answer by simply being present Uncoordinated and incapable of adapting to rapidly increasing demand Poor HR policies Rapidly decreasing leading to staff shortages and low reputation. Poor knowledge management Rapidly decreasing [ 125 ] J. G. Thoburn, S. Arunachalam and A. Gunasekaran Difficulties arising from dysfunctional information systems in manufacturing SMEs  ± case studies International Journal of Agile Management Systems 1/2 [1999] 116 ±126 suited to the needs of many companies (Sauer and Lau, 1997), SMEs in particular, and the achievement of their strategic, commercial and operational goals. This suggests that a new and simpler technique is required that aims to lay down the foundation for an IS at an early stage in the development of a company. This system must be capable of being applied by non-specialist managers in circumstances where there may be a mix of information technology and manual systems. Nevertheless it must be one that incorporates the four elements of information that have been defined in this paper. Work to devise such an audit and planning tool, together with a methodology for its application, is currently being undertaken. References Adamides, E. D. (1996), â€Å"Responsibility-based manufacturing†, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 11 No. 6, pp. 439-48. Bailey, J. E. and Pearson, S. W. 1983), â€Å"Development of a tool for measuring and analysing computer user satisfaction†, Management Science, Vol. 29 No. 5, May, pp. 519-29. Burgess, T. F. (1994), â€Å"Making the leap to agility: defining and achieving agile manufacturing through business process redesign and business network redesign†, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 14 No. 11, pp. 23-34. Cho, H. , Jung, MY. and Kim, M. (1996), â€Å"Enabling technologies of agile manufacturing and its related activities in Korea†, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Vol. 30 No. 3, pp. 323-34. Fayol, H. (1949) General and Industrial Management, Pitman, London. Gehani, R. R. 1995), â€Å"Time-based management of technology: a taxonomic integration of tactical strategic roles†, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 15 No. 2, pp. 19-35. Gillenwater, E. L. , Conlon, S. and Hwang, C. (1995), â€Å"Distributed manufacturing support systems  ± the integration of distributed group support systems with manufacturing support systems†, Omega  ± International Journal of Management Science, Vol. 23 No. 6, pp. 653-65. Goldman, S. L. and Nagel, R. N. (1993), â₠¬Å"Management, technology and agility: the emergence of a new era in manufacturing†, International Journal of Technology Management, Vol. 8 Nos 1/2, pp. 18-38. Goldman, S. , Nagel, R. and Preiss, K. 1995), Agile Competitors and Virtual Organisations, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY. Gulick, L. H. and Urwick, L. F. (1937), Papers on the Science of Administration, Institute of Public Administration, New York, NY. Hammer, M. and Champy (1993), Re-engineering the Corporation, HarperCollins, New York, NY. Kidd, P. T (1994), Agile Manufacturing: Forging New Frontiers, Addison-Wesley, London. Kidd, P. T. (1996), Agile Manufacturing: A Strategy for the 21st Century, IEE Colloquium Digest Nos. 96/071, March, p. 3. Li, E. Y. (1997), â€Å"Perceived importance of information system success factors: a meta-analysis of group differences†, Information and Management, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 15-28. Medhat, S. S. and Rook, J. L. 1997), â€Å"Concurrent engineering  ± processes and te chniques for the Agile Manufacturing Enterprise†, IIE Conference Publication, No. 435, pp. 9-14. Merat, F. L. , Barendt, N. A. , Quinn, R. D. , Causey, G. C. , Newman, W. S. , Velasco, V. B. Jr, Podgurski, A. , Kim, Y. , Ozsoyoglu, G. and Jo, J. Y. (1997), â€Å"Advances in agile manufacturing†, Proceedings  ± IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Vol. 2, pp. 121622, IEEE, Piscataway, NJ. Mintzberg, H. (1997), â€Å"Rounding out the managers job†, IEEE Engineering Management Review, pp. 119-33. Porter, M. E. (1996), â€Å"What is strategy? †, Harvard Business Review, November-December, pp. 61-78. Sauer, C. and Lau, C. 1997), â€Å"Trying to adopt systems development methodologies  ± a casebased exploration of business users’ interests†, Information Systems, pp. 255-75. Smith, K. K. (1984), â€Å"Rabbits, lynxes and organisational transitions†, in Kimberly, J. R. and Quinn, R. E. (Eds), New Futures: The Challenge of Managing Corporate Transitions, Dow-Jones Irwin, Homewood, IL, pp. 269-94. SPI (Society of Practitioners of Insolvency) (1998), Insolvency, The Director, London, June, pp. 82-84. Veryard, R. (1994), Information Co-ordination: The Management of Information Models, Systems and Organisations, Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd, Hemel Hempstead, p. 22. [ 126 ] How to cite Information Systems Case Study, Free Case study samples

Writing a Science Fiction Story

Writing a Science Fiction Story If your school assignment requires you to become an author of the science fiction story or perhaps you want to become a writer, there are some important things you should know. Many people acquire knowledge by means of endless efforts and work and you can just avoid such painful experience and read recommendations of professionals. No tips can provide you with the talent; however, they can help to avoid common mistakes and help to bring your work to the right direction. In case you are just starting your path as a writer, it is important to think over the format of your work. First, it is better to start with something small and then proceed to higher levels. Thus, a short story is a perfect option for you, while creating a novel just can make you bored and impatient. So, how to make a great science fiction story? Think over the chosen genre You are about to set to a science fiction narration. Thus, you need to realize what science fiction is and how to write using this genre. It seems to be very easy and clear, but you need to know not only the main concept but also pay attention to all genre details. For sure you have read thousands of stories where imaginary heroes are real and explained scientifically. Now it is your turn to imagine something like that. Make your heroes and reality consistent, catching and innovative. Remember all those great scientific stories of great authors and try to work out your own unique story. Do not overload your narration with characters We know that you have dozens of ideas and your fantasy is working actively in order to astonish your readers. However, it is important to know where to stop. Select two or three characters and involve them in the story. If you introduce ten or twenty characters, your story would rather remain the chaos and will bore the reader. Besides, you will hardly manage to tell about any character in detail since you are writing a short story and cannot describe numerous characters. Have a medium in your story Regarding the genre of the story, it is preferable to have a character, who will explain all the details and peculiarities of your imaginary world to the readers. The character does not need to be a human but he or she should be recognizable for readers. Many readers will imagine themselves as this character, so you need to make him inspiring and exciting. Think over the structure of your story Do not forget that you are working on a short story. Thus, you need to make its structure logical and consistent. Do not write long introductions for a page or two and know the mass with descriptions. Focus on a couple of ideas in your narration and proceed with their development till the end. Think over an interesting payoff and finish your story in a way the readers will remember. Pay attention to details If you want to create a real masterpiece, every word of your think piece should be refined. No fantastic idea or extraordinary narration can excuse illogical structure or inconsistency. Thus, do not make any confusion and remember that writers remember and notice everything. Moreover, you need to select a tense for your story, so that the events sequences were logical and clear for the reader. Do not neglect routine and criticism When your story is ready, it does not mean that the work is over. You need to proofread your work, correct grammar mistakes and misspellings. Yes, that is incredibly boring but very effective for your success. It will be great to ask your friend or a colleague whom you trust to read the story. Any criticism leads to development and you can make some conclusions based on it. Even if your friend is far from writing sphere, at least he or she can say whether the story is interesting or not.